The Influence of Coalhouse Walker Essay Example for Free

The Influence of Coalhouse Walker Essay In literature, one character can impact the entire story and all of its characters. Such is the case with Coalhouse Walker Jr. in E.L. Doctrows Ragtime. His characterization provides insight into race relations in turn-of-the-century America. Many characters react strongly to his mannerisms, as they believe his social standing does not allow for such behavior. Because Coalhouse conducts himself with a sense of pride unusual of African Americans at this point in history, his view of how he should be treated repeatedly come into direct contradiction with others. He, then, represents all African Americans who oppose the expectations many whites have of them. Coalhouse Walker is the most essential character in Ragtime, because he deeply affects the plot and all other characters. Coalhouse most deeply influences Mothers Younger Brother, a young fundamentalist with little objective in life. However, when he joins Coalhouses group of revolutionaries, he feels as if his life contains purpose. This concept creates a dramatic, exalted self-awareness. Younger Brother was, at last, part of a community. However, Mothers Younger Brother ultimately meets his death while pledged in such an idealistic battle. He begins a new way of life, based on Coalhouses ideals, and encounters a rebirth of his soul. However, this new way of life conflicts with that of his parents; thus, he finds it necessary to depart from them and live his life independently. This is all under Coalhouses influence and guidance. Coalhouse Walker has a grave impact on Father and Mother. Initially, Mother is shocked that he does not act like other African-Americans, but more like a Caucasian gentleman. Father, stumped by Coalhouses proud behavior, concludes that he is not conscious of his racial inferiority. Mothers feelings towards her husband begin to deteriorate after this conversation. At a later point, when Coalhouse takes over the firehouse, Father, as usual putting business before family, rushes off to New York City, thus, leaving Mother to fall in love with Tateh. In Ragtime, by E.L. Doctrow, Coalhouse Walker Jr. is the most important character, as he ties together the treads of the novel. It is through Coalhouse that the three different societal groups, the immigrants, the  African-Americans, and the WASPs mingle and interact. Coalhouse also undergoes a rebirth, like Younger Brother, although his is much more dramatic and swift than Tatehs. Coalhouse goes from being a fine upstanding gentleman to a quintessential angry black male as he resorts to violence to resolve his feelings toward society.

What Can We Expect From Input Enhancement?

What Can We Expect From Input Enhancement? Introduction Today, it is generally accepted that target grammatical form of L2 (second language) must be noticed to make acquisition happens and that SLA (second language acquisition) instruction must be integrated into language teaching by which the grammatical forms are presented to learners in meaningful context. IE (Input Enhancement), coined by Sharwood Smith (1991), is a deliberate manipulation to make specific grammatical features of L2 more salient. First of foremost, this technique underscores the fundamental role of input in language teaching. Likewise, the purpose of IE is to draw learners attention to target linguistic form in L2 input. According to Sharwood Smith (1991), learners could be led to noticing target form in two ways: Input Flood (IF) and Textual Enhancement (TE). Through IF, Sharwood Smith (1991) demonstrated the basic idea that the more frequent the exemplars of the target form appear in the input, the more likely the learners will notice the form. In other words, IF manipulates input by saturating L2 linguistic data with target form to draw learners attention. On the other hand, TE is a technique of manipulating the typographical features of a written text to increase the perceptual salience of target grammatical form. The typographical cues such as changing the font style, enlarging the character size, underlining, bolding, capitalizing, and highlighting with colours could be used. However, the question underpins the concept of IE is: Is it sufficient by exposing L2 manipulated input to learners? This question leads to further investigation as learners might not necessary parse the linguistic structure or make form-meaning connection. Therefore, a more specific question emerges: How effective is IE? Based on above discussion, this essay will argue that IE plays facilitative role in L2 learning. The purpose of this essay is to depict what aspects of IE could be fruitfully applied to design a language teaching activity. Review on the key empirical studies of IE will be presented in this essay. Throughout, advantages and limitations of IE will be identified within theoretical frameworks which underpin the stance. Then, we will describe how to overcome the shortfalls of IE by integrating IE with other interventions into classroom language teaching. Finally, IE implications and limitation on language teaching will be reiterated as conclusion. Before discussing the findings and implication of IE, we will first examine several input and noticing issues in SLA field. Input and Noticing Issues in SLA Research Wong (2005) defines of input as samples of language that learners are exposed to in a communicative context or setting (Wong, 2005:119). At the same time, VanPatten (2003) describes input as the language that a learner hears (or reads) that has some kind of communicative intent (VanPatten, 2003: 25). It is clearly to note that both definitions emphasise the terms of communicative. As claimed by VanPatten (2003), learners play communicative role to extract the meaning encoded in the meaning-bearing utterance or sentence. Through these interpretations, we could come to a understanding that L2 learning process engages learners as active participants in a communicative language classroom when they are exposed to L2 input. Despite of communicative value of input, it is generally agreed that input is prerequisite for L2 acquisition. However, there is a need to explore whether manipulation is essential to mediate input into intake. Perceivably, the distinction between input and intake has been drawn in SLA literature. For example, Sharwood Smith (1993) defines input as the potentially processable language data which are made available by chance or by design, to the language learner whereas intake as that part of input that has actually been processed and turned to knowledge of some kind (pp.167). This interpretation leads to ongoing debate about the role of consciousness and unconsciousness mechanism in learning process. Despite extensive research, it still remains controversial as to what type of cognitive mechanism is necessary for acquisition to occur (Svalberg, 2007: 289). Firstly, Krashen (1982) draws a distinction between learning and acquisition. Learning is the result of conscious process whereas acquisition is the product of subconscious process. According to Krashens (1982) strong Input Hypothesis, acquisition takes place when learners are exposed to comprehensible input which is a step more advanced than their current proficiency level. This perception not only implies that input is prerequisite for acquisition process, subconscious process also plays superior role compared to conscious process. In such a case, grammar instruction plays no role in L2 acquisition (Krashen, 1982). Comprehensible Input Hypothesis has thus provokes considerable debate in SLA domain. Among the researchers, Schmidt (1990), contrary to Krashens (1982) hypothesis, postulates that conscious awareness is crucial and necessary for L2 acquisition (p.27). According to Schmidt (1995: 20), only input noticed by learners will be mediated into intake. In contrast, disagree with Schmidts (1990) strong Noticing Hypothesis, Tomlin Villa (1994) posit that unconscious detection is the key process whereas conscious awareness only play facilitative role in L2 learning. Schmidt (1990) outlines six factors influencing noticing when learners process the input, including perceptual saliency of input, frequency of input, instruction, task demands, readiness of learner and processing capacity of learner. During the ongoing debates between the two positions, Sharwood Smith (1993) proposes IE techniques which are linked to Schmidts Noticing Hypothesis. IE techniques emphasise on the qualities of input, namely TE (related to input saliency) and IF (related to input frequency). Hereby, we could claim that the rationale for Sharwood Smiths (1993) IE is driven by Schmidts (1990, 1995) Noticing Hypothesis. That is, Noticing Hypothesis is the theoretical basis for IE. From this point, the debate has indubitably shifted away from general question of Is noticing necessary? to more specific questions of How noticing influence the learning outcome? and How intervention facilitate constrained grammar acquisition process? However, before we claim that IE is efficacy to facilitate L2 acquisition, we need to examine major empirical evidences in SLA research to justify our view on Sharwood Smiths notion. 2 Empirical Evidence of IE As mentioned before, the underpinning theoretical framework for IE is Schmidts (1990, 1995) Noticing Hypothesis. Although Noticing Hypothesis remains controversial, linguists (e.g. Alanen, 1995; Lee, 2002; Shook, 1994; White, 1998; Wong, 2001) has accumulated evidence over the last decade due to its important role in shedding light on how salient input can contribute to the acquisition of L2 target form. In this section, we will discuss the advantages and limitations of IE by reviewing empirical SLA studies on IF and TE. Various perspective of effectiveness such as degree of noticing, intake of forms, accurate production of forms and content comprehension will be examined along the discussion. Input Flood Empirical Evidence: Input Flood has positive effects Lee (2002) investigated the effects of input frequency on the incidental acquisition of Spanish future tense morphology. The subjects were 283 university students with different L1 backgrounds. The frequency of target form appeared in the input passages were 6, 10 and 16 exposures. In immediate post-test, he found frequency has positive effects on the comprehension and intake. In both immediate and delayed post-tests, 16F group outperformed 10F and 6F group significantly. White (1998) investigated the comparison effects of IF and TE on the acquisition of English possessive determiners (PD). 86 French children were divided into 3 treatment groups: textual enhanced input flood (IF-TE group), textual enhanced input flood plus extensive reading and listening (IF-TE+ group) and input flood without enhancement (IF group). In oral picture description task, all subjects experienced improvement. For the frequency of grammatical use, IF-TE+ significantly outperformed the IF-TE and IF group. However, there is no significant difference between IF-TE group and IF group. Empirical Evidence: Input flood has limited effects Trahey White (1993) investigated the effects of IF (positive evidence) on the acquisition of English adverb placement. Subjects were divided into 3 groups: IF group was given flooded positive evidence; IF-EI (A) group received flooded positive evidence and explicit instruction; IF-EI (Q) group received explicit instruction on question formation. They found IF group and IF-EI (A) group performed significantly better than IF-EI (Q) group on using correct word order. However, the results also revealed that IF group and IF-EI (Q) group used incorrect word order more than the IF-EI (A) group. Williams Evans (1998) examined the effects of IF (positive evidence) and explicit instruction on two English target forms: participial adjectives and the passive construction. The university students were divided into 3 groups: IF group received IF with no explicit instruction; IF-EI group received IF and explicit instruction on the forms, rules instruction and corrective feedback; and control group. For the participial adjective, both IF and IF-EI groups showed improvement. However, IF-EI group had significant higher score than IF group. This suggested that explicit instruction had greater effects than IF on this form. For the passive construction, both IF-EI and IF groups made greater improvement than the control group. However, there was no significant difference between IF-EI and IF groups. This suggested that explicit instruction has no greater effect than IF on this target form. Advantages of Input Flood Firstly, Sharwood Smith (1993, 2006) claims that the main purpose of IE is to enforce noticing. Studies show that IF increases learners attention on target forms without any explicit guidance. This incidental-driven technique provides linguistic materials that are essential for learning problem solution (Doughty William, 1998: 236). This statement is validated by Lees (2002) and Whites (1998) study. The findings supports the basic idea of IF that the more exemplars in a flood the better. Secondly, IF enhances content comprehension. The major advantage of IF is that it provides a lot of meaning-bearing input (Wong 2005: 42). With the availability of meaning-bearing input, learners are provided opportunities to capture the meaning embedded in words, syntax or morphology. In both immediate and delayed post-test, Lee (2002) found that input frequency has significant positive effects on the comprehension. Thus it could be noticed that through the exemplar-based and implicit learning method, learners could perform form-meaning connection and manage to penetrate the meaning of the message. Thirdly, IF fosters the intake of the target form. Lees (2002) study reported 16F group outperformed 10F and 6F group significantly in post-test. For recall task, 16F and 10F groups performed significantly better than 6F group. Results of oral picture description task in Whites (1998) study also revealed that all subjects experienced improvement in the use of English PD. However, there was no significant difference between IF-TE group and IF group, indicating that IF alone was sufficient to bring improvement whereas TE played no significant role on the correct use of the target form. Limitation of Input Flood First of all, studies reported that IF is a volatile technique. Findings from Williams Evans (1998) study suggested that forms did not behaviour uniformly in IF technique. Different form types can weaken or strengthen the effect of IF through their mutual interaction, as well as the interaction with other variables such as task requirement, individual differences, content complexity, and pragmatic information in the context (Han, Park Combs, 2008). Thus further investigation on how to eliminate or reduce the effect of the variables when using IF is worthwhile. Secondly, IF does not provide negative evidence. Trahey Whites (1993) study revealed the limitation of IF that the flood was not effective in helping learners to be aware of impossible positions or incorrect grammar (Wong, 2005) and explicit instruction such as negative evidence might be necessary. This situation was also demonstrated in White (1998) study, as subjects frequency use of English PD was increased by TE, but both IF and TE did not have help learners to use the grammatical form correctly. That is, no significant difference was found for the accuracy ratio between IF group, IF-TE group and IF-TE plus extensive reading and listening group. However, when measuring the frequency of grammatical use, IF-TE plus extensive reading and listening group significantly outperformed the IF-TE and IF group. These findings suggest that comprehensible input might be more effective than IE in the acquisition of English PD agreement rules. Again, this issue still remains controversial and is worth further investigation as Krashens Comprehensible Input Hypothesis is refuted by mostly SLA researchers. Nevertheless, this phenomenon might be explained by the statement that comprehension precedes production (Lightbown et al, 2002; Krashen, 1982). Wong (2005: 94) cautions that acquisition is slow and complex hence we could not expect learners to use target form correctly immediately after IE treatment. Thirdly, Input Flood is an implicit technique where no effort is done to direct learners to the embedded forms in the input (Wong, 2005). Whites (1998) study reported that a third of learners were confused about the purpose of the textual enhancement. The textually enhanced input failed to help the learners to figure out the English PD agreement rule. As seen from empirical evidence, IF is an easy-to-use technique. It could be modified and incorporated easily in the classrooms to emphasize specific target form (Cowan, 2008). However, IF imposes some limitations on language teaching pedagogy which is not as effective as other focus-on-form activities. The discussion of how to apply this technique in language teaching will be demonstrated in next section of this essay. Textual Enhancement Like IF, SLA studies on TE also report mixed results. Researchers found that TE has positive effects, has partial effects, and has no effect on L2 acquisition of grammatical features. While Leow (2001) and Leow at al. (2003) have only manipulated the input by TE as an independent variable, the other studies investigated effects of TE in the combination with other intervention . Empirical Evidence: Textual enhancement has positive effects Studies conducted by Jourdenais et al. (1995), Shook (1994), Wong (2001) revealed that TE had not only helps learners to notice the target forms in input, but it is also very effective for enhancing learners intake new grammatical forms. Shook (1994) investigated the effects of TE on Spanish present perfect tense and relative pronouns (quen/quein). The subjects were 125 university students. The results revealed that the two experimental groups who received the passages with TE performed significantly better than the control group in all tests. However, there was no significant difference between TE group and TE plus focus on form group, revealing that focus on form information played no role in L2 acquisition. Jourdenais et al.s (1995) investigated the effects of TE on the acquisition of Spanish preterite and imperfect past tense forms. Both enhanced and unenhanced versions came with pictures depicting the events of the story. Think-aloud protocols and a picture-based written narration task were used to collect data. Results indicated that TE increased noticing of target L2 form and had a significant positive effect on learners output. Empirical Evidence: Textual enhancement has limited effects Alanen (1995) examined the effects of TE and explicit information on the acquisition of semi-artificial Finnish locative suffixes and consonant changes. 36 English subjects were divided into 4 groups: unenhanced passages (UE group), unenhanced passages plus explicit information (UE-EI group), enhanced passages (TE group) and enhanced passages plus explicit information (TE-EI group). On the sentence completion test, TE group performed better than UE group. However, Alanen (1995) found that both EI groups performed significantly better than non-EI groups on both target forms. The result, contradict with Shooks (1994) study, indicated that explicit grammar instruction had greater positive impact than TE. Results from Whites (1998) study, discussed in the previous section of IF, revealed that TE increased the grammatical use of possessive determiners. However, its impact was not as significant as IF which brought greater improvement. White (1998) concluded that benefits resulting from the experimental treatment conditions were due to increased exposure through IF of target forms and not to any other kinds of enhancement (White, 1998: 103). This claim means IF is the only effective tool to enhance L2 acquisition in her study is. Izumi (2002) investigated the comparative effects of TE and output on the acquisition of English relative clause. Subjects were 61 adults with different L1 backgrounds. Explicit information was given to the subjects to attend to the highlighted form. The results found that output-input task brought measurable gains in target form acquisition. Those who received TE treatment failed to show significant gains in acquisition. Wong (2001) examined the effects of TE, simplified input and exposure to reading on the acquisition of French gender agreement of past participles. 81 English university learners were respectively exposed to four conditions: enhanced and simplified passages (TE-S group), enhanced and unsimplified passages (TE-US group), unenhanced and simplified passages (UE-S group), and unenhanced and unsimplified passages (UE-US group). It is found that TE and simplification had no significant effects on the intake of the target forms. However, TE had significant positive effects on the content comprehension. Empirical Evidence: Textual Enhancement has no (or negative) effects In Leows (1997) study the effects of textual length and TE were examined. 84 college learners were divided into 4 groups and were accordingly given an unenhanced long passage, an unenhanced short passage, an enhanced long passage and an enhanced short passage. Results revealed that TE has no effects on either comprehension or intake of the targeted form. Shorter text length improved comprehension but not the intake. Overstreet (1998) replicated Jourdenais et al.s (1995) study and found negative effects of TE. He combined two factors, namely TE (bolded, underlined, increased font size, different font types and shadowed) and topic familiarity on the acquisition of Spanish preterite and imperfect past tense forms. 50 university learners were given one story each, either enhanced or unenhanced. Neither factor significantly affected learners intake. Moreover, Overstreet (1998) found that TE negatively affected comprehension, mainly due to numerous types of enhancements (Lee Benati, 2007: 25). Leow (2001), after a few years of his study in 1997, conducted another study to investigate effect of TE on the acquisition and comprehension of Spanish formal imperative. He did not apply other invention but only TE in this study. The results once again revealed TE has no effects on intake and comprehension. Leow et al. (2003) examined the effects of TE on the acquisition of Spanish present perfect tense and present subjunctive mood. 72 university learners were divided into two groups. One group was given 2 enhanced passages and another group was given 2 unenhanced passages. Results showed that although subjects noticed the target forms when reading, TE did not enhance the intake of the target forms. S.Lee (2007), similar to Overstreets (1998) study, examined the effects of TE ( ±TE) and topic familiarity ( ±F) on English passive construction. 259 Korean subjects were divided to 4 groups: +E/+F group, -E/-F group, -E/+F group and +E/à ¢Ã‹â€ Ã¢â‚¬â„¢F group. The results revealed that TE was beneficial for the intake of target form, but interestingly, negatively affected the comprehension. Advantages and Limitations of TE Some of above studies demonstrated that TE has significant impact on SLA, either in positive or negative ways. First of all, TE increases noticing. This technique offers more salient target form in written input that learners may easily miss (Wong, 2005: 49). Jourdenais et al. (1995) stated that typographical modification can be used as an effective technique for enhancing salience of language features (Jourdenais et al., 1995: 208). As evidence, both Leow et al. (2003) and Jourdenais et al. (1995) used think aloud protocols and reported that subjects noticed the typographically enhanced target forms when reading. Second, TE is effective to enhance intake of forms. For example, Alanen (1995)s study reported that TE group performed better than UE group in sentence completion test. This indicates the positive role of TE on the acquisition of L2 grammar. Jourdenais et al. (1995) also reported that TE had a significant effect on learners output. By contrast, TE failed to demonstrate positive impact on learners comprehension and intake in Leows (1997, 2001) and Overstreets (1998) studies. These studies demonstrated that implicit noticing is not as effective as explicit instruction and that, clearly, learners needed more help than the input provided (White, 1998: 102). Also, although subjects in both Leow et al.s (2003) and Jourdenais et al.s (1995) studies noticed the enhanced target forms, they performed differently in production. Jourdenais et al. (1995) found positive effect of TE on the intake of the target forms whereas Leow et al. (2003) reported that TE did not enhance the intake of the target forms. In addition, Izumi (2002) found that subjects who received TE treatment failed to show significant gains in acquisition, despite the positive impact on the noticing of the target form. More interestingly, output played significant role in his study. These findings are contradicted to Ellis (1997) claim that TE is effective to induce learners to undertake a kind of form function analysis of the structure, as this is exemplified in input that has been specially contrived to illustrate it (Ellis, 1997: 87). Therefore Polio (2007) states that Sharwood Smiths focus was what had been done to the input, rather than what happened in learners mind (Polio, 2007, cited in Gass Selinker, 2008: 388). However, this notion is inaccurate that Sharwood Smith (1991, 1993) has alerted that we should not rely solely on TE to increase learners attention. Noticing triggered artificially by TE might not result in intake. Although learners may notice the signals, the input may nevertheless be non-salient to their learning mechanism (Sharwood Smith, 1991: 21). As Ellis (1997) describes the use of TE focuses learners attention on specific linguistic features and assists them to encode the meaning embedded in the features, it is suggested here that TE should be integrated with other interventions for better result. Third, TE enhances comprehension. In Wong (2001)s study, TE had significant positive effects on the content comprehension, namely it enhanced the recall of the idea units that corresponded to the target forms. However, evidence from Overstreets (1998) and S.Lees (2007) studies suggested TE distracted learners attention from meaning. The results indicated that TE has negatively affected learners comprehension on the content of the passages. In spite of increasing evidence suggesting that TE can promote noticing of certain linguistic features, it remains a matter a debate whether or not it has simultaneously created a trade-off between intake and comprehension (Han, Park Combs, 2008). Also, Simard (2009) cautioned that selection and combination of different typographical cues lead to different impacts on the intakes. His study reported that the use of capital letters and a combination of 3 typographical cues promote the intake of the forms. Overstreets (1998) use of numerous types of typographical cues might lead to distraction and confusion thus did not enhance the acquisition. Therefore, in order to ensure the quality of instructional material, language teachers should select cues carefully. Fourth, TE is a volatile and changeable technique. In other words, external variables may affect the effectiveness of TE. For example, with no prior knowledge about the target forms, the technique is not beneficial to learners (e.g. Leow, 1997, 2001; Leow et al. 2003). Alanens (1995) study also reported that TE had different effects on different target grammatical forms. Age and puberty are other factors that might mitigate the effects of TE. In Whites (1998) study, the children who are still developing their L2 may have encountered a cognitive overload problem (Doughty William, 1998) and therefore constrained the learning process. Clearly, conflicting results on the impact of IE on acquisition, whether positive, limited or negative, are noticeable from previous studies. Several questions emerged subsequently from the review: are these mixed results attributed to different methodological designs that provide learners different degree of input quality and quantity? Or is it due to different grammatical forms targeted in different studies? If so, does this mean that different target forms are vulnerable variable that correspond to IE techniques in different ways? These insights are meaningful and important for the implication of IE in language pedagogy and will be discussed in following section. 3 Pedagogical Implications Nowadays it is common for language teachers to use IE techniques to enhance specific features of L2 in order to draw learners attention to target linguistic aspects. Although IE does not provide full and consistent picture to SLA pedagogy, it offers valuable information on how to deliberately draw learners attention to target forms. As shown, uncertainties still exist on the facilitative role of IF and TE in SLA research. The debate on Noticing Hypothesis still remains open while previous studies failed to show conclusive and consistent results on IE effectiveness. However, fortunately, the field has moved from the debate on the necessity of conscious noticing to the mixed results of IE efficacy. That is, the theoretical development has now provided a clearer window to take a glimpse and imply IE techniques more effectively to language pedagogy with underpinning SLA issues. In contrast with UG, IE is a sub-field of cognitive models which emphasis on how learners process and decode the input. It should be borne in mind that noticing triggered artificially by IE might not result in intake. This implies that one cannot be assured if the enhanced input will become comprehensible and that the effects of IE vary from case to case. In terms of Input Hypothesis (Krashen, 1982), we argues that input play roles in L2 acquisition with the aids of noticing. As stated by Wong (2005), once target form is noticed, learners need to make form-meaning connection to encode underlies linguistic rules correctly (p.90-91). This notion is in line with VanPattens (1996, 2003) input processing theory where intake is equalised to form-meaning connection. Thus IE and other focus on forms tasks such as processing instruction (VanPatten, 1996, 2003) and consciousness-raising tasks might be combined in language teaching for better results. Also, it is reckoned that output tasks might be integrated into SLA instruction when applying IE concept. Long (1996) distinguishes two types of input: positive evidence and negative evidence. In coherence with Longs notion, Sharwood Smith (1993) proposed both positive and negative IE techniques. IE and TE are positive IE whereas negative IE is basically feedback or negative evidence. When there is a gap between learners perception of L2 grammar and evidence in the input, then positive evidence (input) may triggers to change the grammar (Sharwood Smith, 1991: 122-123). On the other hand, when learners are being confronted with their own production (output), negative IE signals that given forms are incorrect, thus warns learners that they have violated the grammatical rules (Sharwood Smith, 1993: 177). This notion implies that IE approach not only adopts Schmidts Noticing Hypothesis as major foundation, but has also implies Longs Interaction Hypothesis as well as Swains (1995) Output Hypothesis. Apparently, Sharwood Smith proposal of negative evidence has been generally neglected by SLA researchers. Therefore, it would be beneficial if language teachers reckon that input (positive evidence) and output (negative evidence) are both important to promote acquisition with the aid of noticing. Particularly, Ellis (1997: 109) asserts that comprehensible input is derived from both input and interactional (output) modifications makes specific linguistic features more salient and facilitates the development of L2. Negotiate for meaning is thus beneficial to promote acquisition. It directs learners attention to focus on the form that initially caused understanding problems and also helps learners to modify their interlanguage production whenever the gap is being identified (Long, 1983; Pica, 1992). Likewise, Wong (2005) suggested that input should not be one-way instruction, namely simply giving input to L2 learners. Learners may be instructed to respond to the input through activities such as quiz, answering questions, story reconstructing, drawing based on oral directions and games. Hereby, interaction has been stressed in order to make the IF more meaningful to the learners. As pointed out by Wong (2005: 46, 60-61), instructors must always keep meaning communication as primary goal of language in attempts of enhancing the input. Attending to both meaning and form is important to make form-meaning connections possible. By this way, respond to the input is a crucial compartment for language learning. This insight is compatible to Ellis (1997) claim that input-based interpretation grammar instruction mediates input into intake. Accordingly, Lee VanPattens (1995: 51) proposal to use learners and classroom setting for language teaching could be combined with IE in a communicative language classroom. Instructors might integrate grammar teaching into authentic context. For example, input could be presented to learners through IF visually and verbally in a natural classroom setting. It will be beneficial if simple scenarios could be constructed. In addition, name of learners could be addressed in the sentence to promote further noticing, such as below: à §Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ ºÃƒ ¨Ã… ½Ã¢â‚¬ °Ãƒ ¦Ã…  Ã…  Ãƒ ©- ¨Ãƒ ¥Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ³Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã…  Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ Mary BA door close up. à ¥Ã‚ ¤Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ Ã‚ «Ãƒ ¦Ã…  Ã…  Ãƒ ©Ã… ¾Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ãƒ §Ã‚ ©Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¤Ã‚ ¸Ã…  Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ David BA shoes put on. à §Ã‚ ºÃ‚ ¦Ãƒ §Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ °Ãƒ ¦Ã…  Ã…  Ãƒ ¦Ã‚ ¤Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ­Ã‚ Ãƒ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¹Ã‚ ¿Ãƒ ¥Ã‚ ¼Ã¢â€š ¬Ãƒ £Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ John BA chair move away.

Msg And Its Neurological Effects Biology Essay

Msg And Its Neurological Effects Biology Essay Due to evolving since in fields such as food science pharmacology, pediatrics, medical psychology, and toxicology, various food additives have come under a sharp review. In the medical field, a controversy has been ranging as to whether MSG should be used at all since diverse research case studies have not only shown its negative effects on health in general but also its neurological effects. Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) has been used as a flavorant in the food industry for close to one hundred years in foods consumed by the masses daily. Although the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) classifies MSG as a food ingredient that is considered generally safe for use by the public, a number of researches such as by Schwartz have shown that it is harmful to the users health and should therefore be banned. Glutamate is naturally found in foods such as milk, poultry, meat and vegetables. Further, the body naturally produces glutamate which is essential for the nervous system. However, syntheti c manufacture has been proven to be harmful. This study purposefully outlines such effects on the nervous sytem and serves to support other recent findings against the use of MSG. Introduction MSG is a food additive that is found in most of the commercial foods. It improves the flavor of the food hence attracting customers. In itself, there is no value addition in terms of nutrition. It actually does nothing to food, but to the eater it is detrimental to their health. MSG is referred to as an excitotoxin or neurotoxin. This is the case since it widely involves the neuroscientists field in that it has degenerative and deadly effects on the brain and the nervous system. MSG actually over stimulates the brain neurons to exhaustion leading to their death. MSG goes to the brain through the membranes in the mouth and the throat. It also enters the blood stream through the digestion of food in the digestive system. MSG will trick the brain to thinking that it is getting value from the foods that are being taken in. MSG is not natural in nature. It is manmade from glutamic acid which is an amino acid which is found in complete proteins. Amino acids do occur naturally from many pla nts and animal tissues. The artificially created types of Amino acids are processed through the breakdown and the change of the natural form of glutamate. Some of the natural substances used for this purpose are molasses, grain starches and corn. The manipulation process produces various form of glumate. The d-glumate is never found naturally. The free glumates could enter the body 8 to 10 times faster than the bound or the natural glumates. Natural glumate is found in foods like tomatoes, milk and the mushrooms. The commercial methods or techniques used to manufacture glumate were not in use until the 1960s. The MSG in use today is not at all natural Literature review The current research shows that MSG is the cause of neurodegenerative diseases like Alzheimers Huntingtons, Parkinsons and Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. Neuroscientists, such as Adriene, have explained that MSG attacks the blood-brain barrier of the brain cells which is responsible for protection and regulation of the delicate chemical exchange within the brain cells. The chemical exchange process is normally well balanced and its functionality is unquestionable. Under normal conditions also the brain and the body immune system handles all kinds of pollutants, diseases and stress. A very small amount of toxic substance can actually cause the brain call to over react leading to excessive exhaustion and death (Samuels). MSG is one of the major excitotoxins and is widely known to cause damage to the brain part that governs or controls other systems in the human body. The damage will probably appear as a disorder in the nervous system and the endocrine system. This can be manifested in the cases of unusual sleeping patterns, persistent hunger and food cravings. This usually leads to obesity. MSG is also known to cause migraine headaches, behavioral disorders, asthma attacks, depression, heart irregularities, arthritis, sinus problems and digestive problems (Anglesey). MSG is a neurotoxin that takes a very short time to create a widely diverse and dramatic effect on the human body. An individual may take a mild dosage of a prescription drug and have mild effects which may even be favorable. However, another person may take the same prescription drug and instead, get depressed, have stomach disorders, a swollen tongue and aching joints. The different parts of the brain do govern various body functions. The part which is attacked will directly depend on the brain part that has been attacked by the excitotoxin. If for example a person has had a head injury, a genetic pinch in a given part of the brain, has had a fever that is attacking parts of the brain, or even has had a stroke, then it is certain that the part of the brain that has been affected will be due to the toxins. Some of the foods that are sold are sold as weight loss promotions to the people. When food substances such as fat and sugar are removed from the foods, MSG together with aspartame is usually added. These excitotoxins are known to cause obesity and irregular heartbeats in many people. FDA usually allows the labeling of MSGS as natural flavors, hydrolyzed proteins and autolyzed yeast when used as just a component ingredient in an additive and not purely MSG. Americans today are consuming 160 million pounds of MSG per annum. A toxicologist and an author by the name Dr, George Schwartz claims that two table spoons of MSG on a piece of bread could kill a medium sized dog within a minute. The FDA in the year 1995 claimed that no one can react to less than 3 grams of MSG per meal. However, despite their confirmation, they have warned that MSG should be avoided by children, pregnant or lactating women, the elderly and those who suffer Asthma. A highly sensitive individual can react even to less than a gram of MSG (Blaylock). Effects and Related disorders Research has shown that in the late 1950s, an estimated amount of 12 grams per person per year of MSG was used by the Americans. Looking at the same issue today, the estimate has shot to between 400 and 500 grams per person per year. This is an amount that needs evaluation by FDA. (Anglesey) The wide usage of MSG came in the mid 1970s. It gained much popularity with producers of food through the 1980s. Two powerful excitotoxic food additives that took the food industry by storm were the MSG and aspartame. MSG has been widely associated with a wide range of diseases, symptoms and complaints. As earlier stated, it affects the neurological system of the body. The same ailments are today being reported to be on their rise. Often the ailments are quite unexpected and hard to explain either. Neorological effects of MSG and statistics of interest published by national organizations have been listed here-in. Fibromyalgia: this is a growing epidemic. Its patients eliminated MSG and aspartame during the study conducted by Florida University which reported complete relief of symptoms in 2001. However, the most cognitive study was carried by Smith, Shmidt and Guns who sought to prove the link between Fibromyalgia and MSG with several other additives as a common rheumatologic disorder. In this case, 4 patients were diagnosed for 2-17 years with fibromyalgia syndrome. However, they had undergone various modalities of treatment while failing to consider MSG as the causative agent. After eliminating aspartame and MSG from their diets, complete or near complete resolution of symptoms diagnosed were recorded within months. In this case analysis, the subjects were women who had multiple comorbidities and recurring symptoms after the ingestion of MSG. It is therefore indicative that t he excitotoxins, present in substances such as Aspartate and MSG, become excitatory neurotransmitters once ingested, and if consumed in excess can lead to neurotoxicity. These 4 patients may therefore represent this fibromyalgia syndrome and act as a link to conclusively establish a link to MSG. Therefore, persistent studies, if carried out on a larger sample, might serve to link the fibromyalgia syndrome to MSG and aspartame more concretely (Murray). Further, a study posted in MSGTruth.org is instrumental in linking MSG to pituitary adenomas. MSG overstimulates the hypothalamus which consequently leads damage on the neurons. The hypothalamus is responsible for directing the pituitary glands actions, which is also referred to as the master gland since it in turn directs all other glands in the body and their actions such as metabolism, development of sex and reproductive organs and other key development functions. Statistics have shown that 25% of Kenyans develop a pituitary adenoma in the course of their lives. However, studies linking pituitary adenomas to MSG are inconclusive. Some studies had previously depicted this as a genetic disorder but have however been proven wrong. About half of the pituitary adenomas secrete prolactin. Prolactinomas vcan become extremely large over time to crowd the optic nerve thereby affecting vision. It is however detected early in women since it interferes with menses and stops ovulation. This prevents conception or pregnancy in general. Further, since prolactin is responsible for lactation, secretion can cause lactation in the victim even if they were never pregnant or even if they are male. Hence, men with these adenomas develop breasts which have the capacity to secrete milk. Unlike in women who are forewarned by the effects on vision or associated headaches, this condition is deadly in men since the tumor can only be detected when it is large and dangerous. Further, research records by most governments are only kept for cancerous tumors while benign tumor, such as in this case, are neglected hence making it the more difficult not only to research on especially as to its link to aspartine and MSG but also to treat. Trea tment is very expensive. There are only two treatments with Dostinex, a carbegoline, is normally preferred which costs approximately $ 30 a tablet. Therefore, there is a need to sponsor more research as to the link to MSG and brain tumors (Monosodium Glutamate (MSG) and Aspartame). Other effects that have been attributed to MSG and its neurological disorders are headaches and migraines, asthma, obesity among others. In headaches and migraines: an approximate amount of $ 2.2 billion per year are being spent on drugs which treat headaches. This chronic condition has received a 74% increase from the years 1980 to 1990. Secondly, Asthma has been linked to MSG and related to the brain effects. According to statistics there was a decline of asthma until the mid-eighties. Since then however, there has been a recorded 100% increase in the rate of death among the children and the seniors. This incidence has increased 600% in the last 10 years. FDA has identified that the uncontrollable asthma can be caused by MSG, unfortunately no further measures are taken to deal with the situation. Defects of birth and disorders of production: MSG has been identified as a mutagen i.e. mutates fetuses. It is said to cause damage to the intellectual development, reproduction, growth pa tterns and the gonadal functions. However, such research has not been concrete. Other effects are neurological or emotional disorders. Laboratory studies have shown devastating effects on brain development. This includes autism, attention deficit, dyslexia, hyperactivity, violent episodes or rage, panic attacks, depression, paranoia, seizures and cerebral palsy. Rats were used for this study. However, human beings are 5 times more sensitive to MSG than rats. Obesity too has been linked to MSG and the nervous system. This is the most consistent effect of excitotoxins exposure and can be termed as a growing problem that does not respect age or sexual boundaries. In fact scientists uses glumate to feed animals used in the laboratories with an aim of inducing obesity. MSG will trigger insulin or adrenalin or fat storage or even a food craving response. This actually depletes the serotonin levels which in turn trigger headaches, depression and fatigue and also leads to food cravings. Finally, it is vital to note the following maladies and diseases are also attributed to MSG. Heart maladies: for the Americans, more than 70 million of them do suffer one or more forms of cardiovascular disease. 43% of all deaths in America are related to this same problem. Cardiovascular operations in the US went up with 287% from the year 1980 to 1990. Alzheimers disease: in the 1980s, this disease was nowhere among the highly identifiable health threats. It is however ranked third in todays statistics after cancer and heart disease. There are 4 million people afflicted by the disease at a cost of $47,000 per person per year in healthcare costs. Parkinsons, ALS, MS and the Huntingtons diseases like Alzheimers are all progressively growing neurogenic diseases that show brain and nerve cell damage. There are also other symptoms of MSG sensitivity that include swollen throat and tongue, joint pain, skin disorders, sleeping disorders, burning, tightness of the face or its redness, vert igo and gastrointestinal complaints. This subject of disorders in behavior for children is becoming a common discussion among professionals. The Studies that are already done have widely associated the violent behavior, attention deficits and emotional instability to chemical imbalances occurring in the brain. The reason that young brains are developing the blood-brain barrier, it is now becoming an extreme possibility that there will be early damage caused by excitotoxins. In April 1994, a time magazine article confirmed the rising problem of behavioral disorders. The magazine stated that the attention deficit hyperactivity disorder was not in existence 15 years ago. It is however said that it is now affecting 3.3 million American children. This magazine article quotes a prominent research which 10 years ago stated that symptoms of ADHD and ADD (attention deficit hyperactivity disorder) vanished with maturity. Today however, ADD is now the fastest growing diagnostic category for the adults. The combination of excitotoxins i.e. MSG and aspartame came into wide usage in the 1980s. The drug sale rate for these disorders has shot up by almost 400% in a period of 4 years only. MSG is now a known mutagen. Its damage occurs in the womb as chemicals pass from the womb of the mother into the blood system of the fetus. The old people do show high vulnerability rates to the progressive neuro-generative diseases. An example of such diseases is Alzheimers.

Protect Me? Essay -- Essays Papers

Protect Me? I’ve decided to write my paper on protection policies associated with trade. I should let you know that I’ve been reading the book â€Å"Trade Under Fire† and I agree that trade restrictions â€Å"overall† cause more harm than good. I’ll focus mainly on American policies regarding import tariffs and the impact it has on domestic producers and the domestic job market. My paper will be delivered as follows: †¢ Benefits from Trade †¢ Imports and Exports †¢ Tariffs on Imports †¢ The Job Issue †¢ Conclusion Benefits from Trade: As we’ve discussed in class, any time there is trade there are benefits. David Ricardo helped prove this with his Law of Comparative Advantage, which states: â€Å"Each country (involved in trading) should completely specialize in producing the good that it has comparative advantage in and then exchange the good with other countries to import goods it wants, if this is done each trading country gains from free trade.† This makes sense and every model we’ve done in class shows countries that trade with each other increase their consumption possibilities. This potential increase in consumption is known as â€Å"gains from trade†. The gains from trade can be limited however by protectionist policies. These are policies put in place by governments to protect domestic firms from being hurt by free trade. There are numerous ways to enact protectionist policies for domestic firms. The main one I’m going to talk about is tariffs (taxes). But first let’s talk about the balancing act that takes place between imports and exports. Imports and Exports: In the book â€Å"Free Trade Under Fire† Douglas Irwin discusses the mutuality (balancing act) that needs to take place between imports and exports. Basically, pr... ...cally been good for consumers and bad for firms. But when you factor in the job issue it frightens workers into thinking that if they don’t stick with their firm and fight imports they won’t have a job. Creating an alliance between firms and labor against imports. Nobody wants to be unemployed. And being told that â€Å"your job is obsolete but a different job that might pay more is on the way† doesn’t really cushion the blow of being laid off. But the overall picture (long run or long term effect) basically states that protection doesn’t benefit the world overall. This is in my opinion the strongest case for free trade. References Free Trade Under Fire: By Douglas Irwin Principles of Macroeconomics (Vijay Sharma): Notes by Jeff Maffitt International Trade (Steven Beckman): Notes by Jeff Maffitt International Finance (Suzanne Uroz-Korror): Notes by Jeff Maffitt

University Costs :: essays research papers

University Costs How have university costs changed over the years? University costs have been steadily increasing throughout the last ten years as more and more students apply. However, foreign students feel the brunt of the hikes as they pay around the area of three times as much as in country students. What are some of the costs when going away to university? Costs that you are expected to cover when going away for university are listed below. 1) Tuition - this is the main expenditure when going away to university. Tuition cost run from about 2,000 - 4,000 dollars a year. 2) Books and supplies - this cost runs up at about 500 - 800 dollars per year for books. Average supplies range from about 100 - 200 dollars. 3) Transportation - when a student is away at university, the problem of getting to and from school arises. More than likely, this problem can be solved through public transportation such as, bus, subway, or shuttle train. The average cost for a years pass on one of these transportation systems is about 200 - 300 dollars. The other available option is to own a vehicle. The downside is gas drains the cash flow and student parking can be quite expensive at some universities. 4) Housing - a student who attends university away from home must find a place to eat, sleep and , of course, study. There are about three main options in this field of discussion. The first is dorm housing. The costs of sharing a dorm ranges from about 250 - 400 dollars per month. The second available option is to rent an apartment. A nice affordable apartment ranges from about 300 - 500 dollars a month. This type of apartments usually contains features such as a stove and a fridge. The final option is to board at a house. This is clearly the most affordable situation. Most meals are home cooked, you are equipped with a washer and dryer. The atmosphere of home is also a plus for first-time students who might feel homesick. The price to board ranges from around 200 - 400 dollars a month depending on how close you are to the campus. 5) Miscellaneous - costs that are included under the miscellaneous section are food, clothes, and personal expenditures. The average cost yearly for miscellaneous expenses can run from about 500 - 1000 dollars a year.

Effects of Sexual Abuse on Children Essay -- Psychology

A Brief Study of Sexual Abuse of Children and it's Causes and Effects Sexual abuse of children and infants is sadly as universal and old as the human race itself. But it is only in recent years that much more attention has been paid to the pervasive instance of sexual abuse among children, the majority of which occurs in the family setting. Pedophiles usually manifest signs that are readily identified. Common signs are: repetitive conversations about the sexual activities of children or teens, and excessive masturbation to include breaking from normal daily activities to masturbate. The pedophile has a childhood history of sexual abuse and has unresolved sexual problems stemming from this history. Hobbies centering around the collection of child pornography and sexual arousal when engaging in this hobby is a sign of a sexual perpetrator. Sexual abusers generally have a sense of frustration and anger released through the abuse of children. Pedophiles lack the ability to approach appropriate sexual partners, thus they seek out children to find a sexual release. As can be seen, emotional immaturity is a factor in a pedophile personality. Social inadequacy runs in juxtaposition with emotional immaturity. Additionally pedophiles enjoy the ability of control, and the sense of power they have over their victims. They feel as if they have no control over their own lives and so they take advantage of children in an attempt to achieve that sense of power. Statistics of child sexual abuse are highly controversial due to the fact that reporting and compilation of this information is incomplete and cannot be fully controlled. But from the information that can be gathered it is evident that there is extreme truth that sexual abus... ...re strong indications that environmental factors do play an important role. Children who are raised in an abusive environment, as adults create an abusive situation that their children "environmentally" inherit, and the cycle goes on and on. As is evident, child molestation is a commonly occurring abuse when it needn't be. If parents, siblings, teachers, religious leader, and society as a whole made an attempt to observe the physical and behavioral tendencies in children, abuse can be more readily perceived and therefore eradicated. Society must not blame the victim, but must punish the perpetrators and make an effort to rehabilitate them before allowing them to form an abusive situation yet again. Sexual abuse in children is a widely growing problem which needs our attention. We need to act now before more children are subjected to these unmotivated attacks.

Understanding Poetry

Understanding and Appreciating Poetry 1 Note to Teachers Set Poems 2012-2014 Teachers have been speaking about the lack of critical material on some of the literature set pieces (particularly the poems) selected for study at the Caribbean O’Level. Diverse interpretations make an exploration of literary material interesting and expansive. This guide to the study of ‘set’ poems is a response to those who wish to be expansive in their analysis and appreciation. It is not intended to be a model commentary but an analysis or interpretation that will stimulate further discussion and analysis. Some poems are treated with questions.This approach helps to elucidate the central themes or ideas in the poems. This is a cost free publication offered to teachers. Prepared by Clifford Narinesingh co – author of A Comprehensive English Course , Books 1-3 and CXC English A. and author of Developing Language Skills Books 1,2,3, and CSEC Exam Book 4 A Royards Publishing Compa ny Project This is a free publication and not intended for resale 2 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry UNDERSTANDING AND APPRECIATING POETRY DULCE et DECORUM EST Theme: The theme of the poem is the subject with which the poet deals. It is the central idea around which the event or experiences revolve.In this poem, the central idea is the â€Å"horrors of war†. The ghastly image of war, the torture to which soldiers are subjected, reflect the theme – â€Å"the haunting flares†, â€Å"gas shells dropping† â€Å"froth corrupted lungs† are evidence of the atrocities of war. INTENTION OF THE POET What does the poet hope to achieve? The poet here, wishes to convey a universal message to the reader, that one should not believe that it is noble to die for one’s country, because of the untold miseries which soldiers experience. To the poet, neither fame nor glory can compensate for the immense suffering that war inflicts on humanity.MOOD The mood conveyed in the poem is one of anger, revulsion and disgust. The impact of the incident in which the soldier is caught in an explosion and the agony he suffers is one of loathing and revulsion. â€Å"I saw him drowning† â€Å"guttering, choking, drowning† shows the immense suffering of a dying soldier. This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry THE MAIN INCIDENT The traumatic experience of a soldier who is caught in a sudden explosion while returning to his camp. 3 IMAGERY The poet achieves his purpose or intention through his use of intense language and vivid imagery.These are the similes used by the poet to make the images interesting and meaningful. 1. â€Å"Bent double, like old beggars under sacks. † Here the soldiers returning from the battle field look like old beggars, bent with age and exhaustion, carrying their sacks on their backs. The comparison is appropriate as it appeals to the visual sense and bri ngs the readers face to face with the exhausted soldiers. 2. â€Å"knock-kneed, coughing like hags† The image of the knock-kneed soldiers coughing like hags, shows the terrible effect of the smell of gun powder, and gun shots.It appeals to the auditory sense and reminds the reader of the sounds of old people coughing. 3. â€Å"And floundering like a man in fire or lime† The image presents the soldier in a state of panic, unable to move in any fixed direction as he is trapped in the fire. The reader can see the movements of the soldier, like a blind man floundering and fumbling to find his way. 4. His hanging face, like a devil’s sick of sin† The comparison vividly describes the look of the soldier in agony and pain during the final moments of his death.LANGUAGE OF THE POEM These are some examples of the poet’s use of emotive and intense language â€Å"We cursed through sludge† â€Å"limped on blood-shod This is a free publication and not int ended for resale 4 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry â€Å"Drunk with fatigue† â€Å"He plunges at me, guttering, choking, drowning† â€Å"White eyes writhing in his face† â€Å"Froth-corrupted lungs† The language used is both appropriate and effective and evokes the sympathy of the reader. THIS IS THE DARK TIME, MY LOVE The theme of this poem is about a people whose dreams of a better life have been threatened by the destructive power of the ‘strange invader’.The atmosphere of the poem is one of tension, fear, anxiety. â€Å"Everywhere the faces of men are strained and anxious. † This is because of the presence of soldiers: â€Å"all around the land brown beetles crawl about. † Even nature is sympathetic to the cause of the people as expressed in the line â€Å"red flowers bend their heads in awful sorrow. † The poet’s mood is one of lamentation for the misery of his people, the instability and sorrow brought about by the strange invader. Imagery: The images appeal to the sense of sight and sound.They present visual pictures that are striking. The picture of the soldiers, â€Å"all around the land brown beetles crawl about†, in their thick armoury, the hard covering on their backs is like beetles. Here you hear the tramping of soldiers â€Å"whose boots of steel tramp down the slender grass†. You can also see the slender grass trampled upon and looking withered. This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry Figurative Language Metaphor: All around the land brown beetles crawl about. † 5 The soldiers are compared to brown beetles.Personification: â€Å"Red flowers bend their heads in awful sorrow. † The poet gives the flower qualities of a human being – the emotion of sorrow. Irony: â€Å"It is the festival of guns, the carnival of misery. † The words â€Å"festival† and â€Å"carnival† a re indicative of joyous celebrations but what the country is really experiencing is sorrow, not joy. The Woman Speaks to the Man who has employed Her Son In this poem, a mother expresses her deep affection for her son. She reflects on the unfortunate circumstances of her life as a single parent. She is now concerned about the welfare of her son.This woman is seen as one, whose deep devotion and dedication to her son make her transcend her difficulties. Her responsibility to her son takes priority. But what shatters her now, is the fact that her son is employed by someone who appears to be engaged in shady activities. To her, the gun he carries is a symbol of destructiveness and criminal activities. The conversational style of the poem makes the reader empathize with the thoughts and feelings of the mother. The reader discerns in the mother, fortitude, resilience and spiritual strength which inform her actions. 1. What is the theme of the poem? . The mood of the poem is one of (a) di sgust and anger (b) optimism and hope (c) sadness and despair This is a free publication and not intended for resale 6 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry 3. Which of these words describe the tone of the poem? formal, conversational, angry, serious? 4. What do the lines â€Å"a metallic tide, rising in her mouth each morning† suggest about the mother? 5. â€Å"He treated all his children With equal and unbiased indifference. † What do the above lines suggest about the father? 6. Why do you think that the mother is upset about the job her son has taken? 7.What do the â€Å"black cloth† and â€Å"veiled hat† symbolize? 8. Select the line which expresses the mother’s helplessness. 9. Why does she allude to the â€Å"thief on the left side of the cross†? 10. How do you feel as you read the poem? GOD’S GRANDEUR The poem is expressive of God’s presence in the natural world even though man’s exploits have served to destroy na ture and its freshness and purity. To the poet, God’s grandeur is ever pervasive, revealing itself like ‘flame from shook foil’. The word ‘flame’ is significant as it conveys the brilliance of God as the shining light the foil gives off.The poet employs the image of an electric charge, which develops into a flame or a light suggesting the power of His greatness. God’s light assumes a richness like the ‘ooze of oil crushed’ or pressed to it finest quality. As the oil gathers strength to richness so too does God’s greatness. The images are all interwoven and expanded to express the grandeur of God. In stanza 2, though man is aware of God’s greatness, he still exploits it through commerce and industrialization, blemishing the earth and destroying the freshness of nature.The repetition, ‘generations have trod, have trod, have trod’ conveys man’s persistence in his ruthless exploitation. The persistent repetition of the words ‘have trod’ leading to ‘smeared and bleared’, tells of the poet’s resentment and This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry disgust at man’s actions. ‘Man’s smudge’ and ‘smell’ are expressive of a polluted and squalid environment, all due to man’s uncaring attitude. Unthinking man cares not about the destruction he leaves; he seems not aware of what he has done to nature as expressed in the words ‘nor can foot feel being shod. The natural sensation of walking barefooted is lost. The language of stanza one (1) lines 5-8, reveals a protest against man’s ruthlessness. The poet reacts to man’s inhumanity and indignity with reasoned calmness, a protest without rage or anger for he is consoled by nature’s presence as described in stanza two (2). In stanza two(2), the poet tells that God’s presence or po wer through nature is renewable and invigorating in spite of man’s destructive nature. Nature is described as indestructible or inexhaustible. â€Å"For all this, nature is never spent There lives a dearest freshness deep down things. The poem ends on a positive note, an assurance that springs from the poet’s faith as he is convinced of the Holy Ghost’s presence with vitality and life and all that is luminous, â€Å"warm breath and bright wings† 7 GOD’S GRANDEUR 1. Using your own words, express in about two to three lines the theme of the poem. 2. State the central contrast which this poem presents between God and man. Explain it fully with reference to specific details. 3. Select one metaphor used in the poem and show how it is expanded. 4. Explain in your own words the meaning of the following lines. (a) Why do men now not reck his rod? b) And for all this, nature is never spent. 5. The poet uses the following devices. Select one example of each and comment on its effectiveness: (a) simile (b) alliteration (c) compression (d) repetition This is a free publication and not intended for resale 8 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry ORCHIDS In this poem, the writer is about to relocate and is sending her material belongings â€Å"to fill the empty spaces of her future life†. One thing that cannot be boxed is the sentiment she feels for the orchids. The orchids belong to her emotional and spiritual world. The purple colour is a symbol of the blood of Christ on the Cross.What is evident in the poem is that some experiences in life can never be forgotten. Even though you may wish to suppress them, like a stubborn orchid, they bloom and blossom. For the poet, the orchid is an inspiration to the creative instinct. It sends a message, tells a story that reaches poetic dimensions. Even though the pressed orchids become â€Å"thin and dried transparency†, she believes that they still are a stimulus for poetic thought. I n the poem, the material world is pitted against the world of nature. The world of nature is constant and eternal. 1. What is the theme of the poem? a) relocating to a new home (b) nurturing a spray of orchids (c) the poet’s impression of the orchids 2. What is the mood of the poem? 3. From where did the poet get the orchids? 4. What effect have the purple petals on the poet? 6. What was peculiar about the orchids? 7. (a) Explain the meaning of â€Å"their thin dried transparency†. (b) Of what value is the â€Å"thin dried transparency† to the poet? This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry 9 SOUTH Motivated by a deep sense of longing to return to the islands, the poet recaptures in his memory delightful scenes of his native land.He recalls the bright beaches, the fishermen’s houses and the sound of the sea which heralded his birth. The poet has journeyed from the islands to distant lands where his experi ences have been different from those in the islands. He has visited stormy cities, felt the sharp slanting sleet and hail and the oppressive shadows of the forest. These are opposed to the warmth of the islands, and the salty brine of the sea. To the poet, the ocean that surrounds the islands is a symbol of adventure, the freedom of the spirit and the limitless possibilities which reside in its vastness.In his view, the rivers that form part of his present environs remind him of a life that lacks purpose – he feels resentment for the rivers. He recalls the refreshing memories of the sea which reflect the harmony between man and nature. He sees the shells, the fishermen’s houses, the pebbled path, the fish and the gulls and the white sails. These are the treasures of the islands which he recaptures in the poem. These are the treasures which make him forget the pains, the sorrows and the hatred. 1. 2. 3. State briefly what the poem is about. Where is the experience takin g place?Select two images in the poem. To which sense does each appeal? 4. 5. Select those expressions which show the poet’s experiences of hardship. Which literary device does the poet use in each of the following? ‘bright beaches blue’ ‘sharp slanting sleet’ ‘their flowing runs on like our longing’ ‘splash’ ‘white sails slanted seaward’ 6. What is the mood or feeling of the poet? This is a free publication and not intended for resale 10 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry EPITAPH, DREAMING BLACK BOY, THEME for ENGLISH B. The poems ‘Epitaph’, ‘Dreaming Black Boy’ and ‘Theme for English B’ have similar themes.They express discrimination and intolerance in human relationships and reflect the denial of the basic human rights of recognition, justice, equality and freedom. The three poems are treated differently. You will observe that in the poem â€Å"Epitaph† the ima ge is vivid, stark and gruesome. Amidst the beauty of the â€Å"falling sunlight† and the swaying cane†, the dead body of the slave hung. The image evokes in the reader anger against human brutality and compassion for the fate of the slave. Through the sad tale, the poet achieves his intention of giving the reader insights into the brutality meted out to slaves in their days of enslavement.The poem is a tribute to the dead slave, and is melancholic in mood and tone. Epitaph 1. Describe the image presented in stanza one of the poem. 2. Which of the following best defines the feelings evoked by the image? (a) elation and despair (b) compassion and anger (c) hatred and defeat (d) disappointment and disbelief 3. Identify words and expressions which describe the morning’s atmosphere. 4. The poet compares the swinging body to â€Å"a black apostrophe to pain†, most likely because â€Å"the swung body† (a) resembled an apostrophe mark. (b) was prominently positioned as a mark symbolizing pain. c) was at the heart of two elements. (d) was the cause of much agony and pain. This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry 5. Explain the meaning of each of the following expressions: (a) punctuate our island tale (b) brutal sentences (c) anger pauses till they pass away 6. Do you think that the title of the poem is appropriate? Give a reason to support your answer. 7. Which of the following best expresses the theme of the poem? (a) a sorrowful tale (b) man’s inhumanity to man (c) victory and defeat (d) a blot on our history 8.What is the mood experienced throughout the poem? 11 Dreaming Black Boy In the poem ‘Dreaming Black Boy’, the boy expresses his thoughts and emotions in abstract images. He dreams and wishes for the rights that should be accorded to all human beings – recognition and love, and the freedom of movement and speech. These images appeal to the emotions and the reader empathizes with the boy who is being denied these rights. The poem is written in blank verse. This makes the tone of the poem conversational. 1. What is the theme of the poem? (a) disappointment (b) relationships (c) alienation (d) injustice . Why do you think the â€Å"black boy† has dreams and wishes? 3. What does the boy wish according to stanza one (1) of the poem? (a) opportunity to compete (b) recognition and warmth This is a free publication and not intended for resale 12 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry (c) freedom to play (d) to forget his ancestors 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Why does the boy wish for an opportunity to be educated? Identify two pieces of evidence which show the boy’s feeling of rejection. Identify the lines in which the boy feels that his freedom of movement and speech have been suppressed.Who are the â€Å"torch throwers† and the â€Å"plotters in pyjamas† alluded to in stanza four (4)? What do you think is the tone of the poem? (a) What terrible burden does the boy suffer? (b) What is his attitude to suffering? Theme for English B In the poem â€Å"Theme for English B† the poet deals with a student’s feeling of frustration and disappointment in the society. The thoughts which he expresses on the â€Å"page† echo the issues that confront him in an environment of whites. The mind of the student is confused. Though he was born and bred in a society of white people, and educated in a school among whites, yet he feels a sense of alienation.In the page that he writes, he is justifying his right to acceptance and equality, on the basis that all people share a common natural heritage of instincts, emotions and tastes. He firmly believes that each race impacts on the other and learns from each other. Perhaps he is questioning whether discrimination should give way to harmony among the races. 1. What does the word â€Å"true† in line four (4) -â€Å"Then, it will be trueâ₠¬ , imply? (a) authenticity 2. (b) reality (c) credibility (d) integrity Identify the aspects of the student’s life which seem to make the assignment difficult. This is a free publication and not intended for resaleUnderstanding and Appreciating Poetry 3. The student’s page would be based on (a) life at the college (b) his instincts and emotions (c) a resolution of the conflicts in his mind (d) the Harlem experience 4. What does the student wish to say by listing the things he likes? 5. What makes the student and the instructor part of each other? 6. According to the student’s page, which of the following statements are True? (a) The page on which the student writes is coloured. (b) Feelings, natural instincts and tastes are manifested by all people. (c) Sometimes whites and coloured cannot tolerate each other. d) All people are not born equal. (e) Each race impacts on the other and learns from each other. 7. Which words best describe the character of the stude nt? impulsive, rational, obstinate, compromising, intelligent, outspoken, unbalanced. The poem is written in Blank Verse form. What does this lend to the style and tone of the poem? 13 8. Test Match Sabina Park 1. What is the theme of the poem? (a) Fall from glory (b) An exciting cricket match (c) Reflections of a spectator (d) Failed batsmen 2. Which line in the poem tells that the crowd lacked the spirited response to the match? 3. The speaker is critical of the English batting.This is a free publication and not intended for resale 14 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry Quote the lines in support of the criticism. 4. Why is the poet’s rationale for a dull game not convincing even to himself? 5. What is the â€Å"tarnished rosette† which the writer mentions in the last stanza? Why is it tarnished? 6. The tone of the poem is (a) sarcastic (b) formal (c) conversational (d) harsh 7. What does the native language of the folk lend to the poem? 8. In this poem you hear tw o voices. Whose voices are they? 9. What is meant by the line â€Å"Proudly wearing the rosette of my skin†? 0. What insights do you get of the relationship between the English and the native folk from the expression, â€Å"Eh white bwoy†? Ol’ Higue and Le Loupgarou Many stories of strange supernatural characters derive from the cultural tradition of the folk. These characters form an important part of the folklore brought by the Africans to the West Indies. Some of these have been preserved in narratives and poems. The character to which this poem ‘Ol’ Higue’ alludes is the ‘Soucouyant’ whose mission is to draw blood from human beings. Read the poem. Discuss the following questions. 1.What image of Ol’ Higue does the poet present in stanza one (1)? 2. What complaint does Ol’ Higue make in stanza one (1)? Quote the expressions which support your answer. This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understa nding and Appreciating Poetry 3. (a) Why would Ol’ Higue be â€Å"Burning like cane fire†? (b) Why does she have to count a thousand grains? 4. Why is the blood of babies attractive to Ol’ Higue? 5. How and when does she perform her â€Å"blood-sucking† task? 6. Give one reason why Ol’ Higue would love women giving birth. 7. Do you consider Ol’ Higue a mysterious character? . What feeling does Ol’ Higue evoke in you as you read the poem? 15 Le loupgarou Read the poem and discuss the following questions based on it. 1. (a) (b) What is the â€Å"curious talk† alluded to in line one (1) of the poem? What does the word â€Å"curious† suggest? 2. Who are the â€Å"greying women†? 3. Why, do you think, Le Brun was â€Å"greeted by slowly shutting jalousies†? 4. Which word describes Le Brun’s dress? 5. What, do you think, is the bargain Le Brun made with the fiends? 6. What was responsible for Le Brunâ€⠄¢s ruin? 7. How did people know that le Brun had changed himself into a dog? 8.What literary device is used in line one(1)? â€Å"A curious tale that threaded through the town†. 9. .How do you feel as you read the last two lines of the poem? You will observe that both poems deal with the supernatural. The Soucouyant is the counterpart of the Le Loupgarou. They both make a pact with the devil to engage in mysterious and fiendish dealings. This is a free publication and not intended for resale 16 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry They both are greedy and are ruined through their greed. They both evoke fear in the people around them. Once upon a Time Read the poem and discuss the questions based on it. . What do you think is the theme of the poem? (a) Behavioural patterns in human relationships. (b) Attitudes of people in a modern age. (c) Loss of culture founded on love, sincerity and goodwill. (d) How people lived long ago. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. What difference is there in how p eople laughed long ago and how they laugh now? Give one piece of evidence that shows how people deceive others. Why, do you think, that the poet wears different faces in different contexts? Provide evidence to show that the poet is influenced by the behaviour and attitudes of the new age. Does the poet like the changes in behaviour?Give reasons to support your answer. 7. Which of the following best expresses the mood of the poet? (a) melancholy (b) disappointment (c) anger (d) reflection 8. 9. What can you infer about the character of the poet? Which of the following lessons can one learn from this poem? (a) Pattern your lives to please others (b) Appearances are often deceptive This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry (c) Values should change to suit modern living. (d) Be yourself at all times. (e) Honesty, love and consideration should guide your actions. 7 Forgive my Guilt 1. What is the theme of the poem? a) An accident b) A pl ea for forgiveness c) Two injured birds d) A confused mind 2. 3. 4. 5. What incident is the poet recalling? Where and when did the incident take place? Identify two contrasting images of the birds, before and after the incident occurred. Select images that appeal to the sense of (a) sight (b) sound Explain each and say whether it is appropriate or not. 6. Identify two similes in the poem. Explain each and say whether it is appropriate or not. 7. 8. 9. What mood does the poem evoke in the reader?What are your feelings towards the poet? State the qualities of the poet which you discern in the poem. To An Athlete Dying Young 1. 2. What is the theme of the poem? What is the intention of the poet? This is a free publication and not intended for resale 18 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Find two expressions in stanza one (1) which indicate the spectator’s response to the athlete’s victory. What does the line â€Å"Townsman of a stiller town† sugge st about the athlete? Quote two expressions in stanza three (3) which show the poet’s view on â€Å"glory and laurels†.Why would â€Å"silence† and â€Å"cheers sound the same to the dying athlete? Write T next to the statements that are true. By dying young the athlete’s glory a. died with him. b. is unchallenged on the field. c. does not gain wide acclaim. d. is not worn down by time. e. is suppressed by other runners. 8. The poem best exemplifies a. reflections on the transience of fame and glory. b. a tribute on the demise of a young successful athlete. c. ovation on the victory of a young adult. d. thoughts on life after death. It is the Constant Image of Your Face In this poem, the poet experiences a deep feeling of guilt and remorse.The poet has framed an image of his beloved whose face is constantly before him, while he is engrossed in a world of his own; a world in which thoughts are like knives, hurling accusations at him. These accusations cut deeply into the poet’s consciousness and remind him of his treachery to his native country. Apparently, the poet has left his native home, having been captivated by the beauty and assurances of his beloved. However, deep in his heart he knows that no other love can lay claim to his loyalty but his homeland which is above This is a free publication and not intended for resaleUnderstanding and Appreciating Poetry all other loves. Feelings of remorse and guilt plague the thoughts of the poet. To him, leaving his country is like an act of treason and treachery. Although he prizes his beloved, he pleads for forgiveness from his country whose tenderness matches or surpasses that of the beloved. 1. What do you think is the theme of the poem? (a) The guilt and remorse of a poet (b) Alienation from one’s own country (c) The poet’s love and loyalty for his native country 2. Describe the mood which the poet experiences throughout the poem. Give suitable quotations in supp ort of your answer. a) Select one image in the poem. (b) To which sense does it appeal? (c) Explain its importance in the poem. 4. (a) What is the meaning of â€Å"my world of knives†? (b) What effect does this world have on the poet? 5. 6. Quote two expressions which show that the poet’s love for his country surpasses all other loves. What qualities of the poet’s character are revealed in the poem? 19 3. West Indies, U. S. A. In this poem, the poet records his impressions of the Islands from a view, thirty thousand feet above. He sees some of the islands as more prominent than others.Some are more culturally and economically developed as can be seen in his impression of Puerto Rico, with â€Å"silver linings in the clouds† and the glitter of San Juan. But to him, each country has its own distinctive features and characteristics, which are highlighted at its terminal. Against these islands, the poet sees the influence of the United States on Puerto Rico: he sees Puerto Rico as a representation of the United States – â€Å"America’s backyard†. Stringent laws are enforced at its terminal to prevent passengers This is a free publication and not intended for resale 20Understanding and Appreciating Poetry from entering without legal documentation. The fear of foreigners who sneak into the island and tarnish the image of the land is well noted by the poet. He notes the influence of American culture and lifestyle in Puerto Rico. The glitter of the cities pulsating with life is well captured in the â€Å"polished Cadillacs† and â€Å"Micro chips†. 1. What is the theme of the poem? 2. (a) Select the simile in the first two lines of the poem. (b) Explain why the poet makes the comparison, (c) Do you find it interesting and original? Why? 3. What is the distinctive feature of each of the following terminals? a) Port au Prince (b) Piarco (c) Vere Bird 4. Why are all passengers other than those embarking at San Juan, required to stay on the plane? 5. What do you think is â€Å"that vaunted sanctuary†? Why is it considered a vaunted sanctuary? 6. Select three pieces of evidence which show America’s influence on the lifestyle of Puerto Rico. 7. What do you think is the mood of the poem? 8. What is the tone of the poet? Composed Upon Westminster Bridge The poet records his impressions of the scene at early dawn when no mechanized activity is going on and the air is clean and devoid of smoke.He is touched by the beauty and splendour of the city. Only those whose souls are dull would not be touched by the awe-inspiring scene; the greatness is majestic. All objects natural or otherwise are now visible because of the glitter of the morning sun which spreads over the landscape. Never before has the poet witnessed such beauty which the splendour of the sun radiates over valley, rock or hills. Not only is the beauty enchanting, but also the peace and calm which the scene has on the mi nd of the poet: In such an atmosphere even the houses seem asleep and all is still.In the scene there is no activity. The air is smokeless because the truckers have This is a free publication and not intended for resale Understanding and Appreciating Poetry not started to pour their emissions into the atmosphere. The poet is deeply impressed and stunned at the calm and beauty of the morning. His exclamation, â€Å"Dear God! † tells us that his response has reached spiritual and divine dimension. 21 1. What is the theme of the poem? 2. Where and when is the experience taking place? 3. What is the mood of the poet? 4. Select the figure of speech in the first five lines of the poem.With what does the poet compare the city? 5. Why is the air smokeless? 6. Select lines which show that there is an absence of noise in the scene. 7. What does the poet mean by â€Å"the very houses seem asleep†? 8. From the poet’s impressions of the scene, what can you tell of his charac ter? 9. Do you like the poem? Give reasons to support your answer. A Contemplation Upon Flowers The poet sees in the flowers a calm and willing acceptance of death – brave and harmless, humble and modest, the flowers are born of the earth and to the earth they return with no resistance.Unlike the poet, the flowers subject themselves to the natural order and pattern of the universe. They bloom in a particular season and then fall to earth. The poet wishes his life to be perpetually in spring for he fears the winter, the harbinger of death. His pride, vanity and fear make him unwilling to succumb to death. However, the poet longs to be like the flowers, to smile and look cheerfully at death. He needs to accept death without fear and to make peace with the inevitable. The wreaths of flowers brighten and sweeten the atmosphere in times of death.The poet wishes to be like the flowers, that his breath will sweeten and perfume his death. Enslaved by pride, vanity and fear, the poet struggles to come to terms with the experience of death. This is a free publication and not intended for resale 22 Understanding and Appreciating Poetry The poet represents humanity in his fear of death. The flowers represent Nature and its willing acceptance of death. 1. What do you think is the theme of the poem? 1. Select the qualities in the flowers that the poet admires. 3. What does the expression â€Å"that I could gallant it like you† mean? . â€Å"Embroidered garments† suggest (a) the flowers are very beautiful (b) even the most beautiful are subject to death (c) Nature produces colorful things (d) the petals of the flowers are adorned with a pattern 5. Why does the poet wish his life would be always spring? 6. What two lessons can the flowers teach the poet? 7. What makes it difficult for the poet to accept death? 8. The word which best describes the mood of the poet is (a) joyful (b) sorrowful (c) pensive (d) angry This is a free publication and not intended for resale